2 Corinthians 11

πανουργία (panourgía, fem.), though etymologically derived from πανοῦργος (panourgos, “ready to do anything”), often carries a strongly negative connotation in classical literature. It denotes unscrupulous cleverness, manipulative cunning, or deceitful craftiness—an intelligence willing to transgress moral boundaries. As Aristotle observes, πανουργία mimics φρόνησις (practical wisdom) but lacks its ethical integrity (Eth. Nic. 1144a27). Tragic and comedic authors likewise depict it as villainous ingenuity (e.g., Aesch. Sept. 603; Soph. Philoct. 408; Ar. Eq. 684). Though later biblical and patristic sources may neutralize or even moralize the term (e.g., Prov. 1:4 LXX), in its classical register πανουργία remains a mark of calculated manipulation.